Political Power and Utopia
Plato, Machiavelli, & Marx
Since humankind began to form civilizations, there has been a struggle to create the ideal society. From that struggle, there have emerged different philosophies on how that utopian society can be achieved. One of the most prominent aspects of creating Utopia is the question of what governance will provide the best framework for protecting and enhancing the lives of citizens. Those who decide how a society will be governed are those that have powers over the citizens. Political power is one of the most prominent forces in the story of humankind. As philosopher Sir Karl Raimund Popper (1902–1994), in The Society and Its Enemies Open, explains, “There is no history of mankind, there is only an indefinite number of histories of all kinds of aspects of human life. And one of these is the history of political power. Plato (427 BCE-347 BCE), Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527), and Karl Marx (1818–1883) are three prominent scholars that have theorized on how political power should be used to achieve the perfect society. To understand their individual philosophies, it is important to examine their concept of an ideal society, their opinion about human nature, and what the government’s role should be in that society.
What is the ideal society? Most people have vastly different ideas about what the perfect society would be. Some people dream of a communal lifestyle with everyone working together and equal in their roles. Others believe that the individual is the most important aspect and that each person should work for his/her/their own survival Then there are those that believe in some combination of individualism and community. This is no different with Plato, Machiavelli, and Marx. Each man had his own idea of what the ideal society would be and they expressed those ideas in their works: The Republic, The Prince, and The Communist Manifesto.
Plato refers to his Utopia as the City, and in this City, a person’s soul should be the most important thing in their lives. In his ideal society, people would be concerned more about improving themselves and enriching their souls rather than material wealth. To avoid the trappings of a materialistic lifestyle, the City should be self-sufficient. If all requirements for survival could be found within the city, there would be no need for trade with other cities. This would take away the emphasis on trade for the sole purpose of making money. Therefore, the power of money could not corrupt the citizens. Slaves are a necessity in Plato’s ideal society and would be used both privately and for community purposes. Citizens could have more time to improve their education if slaves were doing most of the work. The individual is not as important as the health of the whole city. The perfect City would hold dearly the virtues of courage, wisdom, justice, and moderation. Moderation is extremely important because it keeps all citizens happy. Plato states, “Wealth spawns luxury and indolence; poverty makes for meanness and incompetence. Both foster discontent.”
Machiavelli does not theorize about Utopia because he is more concerned with reality. In his article, “The Meaning of Utopia”, Yves Charles Zarka explains Machiavelli’s reasoning, “It is no use escaping, dreaming about imaginary states.” He did not focus on creating a paradise: instead, his goal was to set forth the best way to run a princedom. The power of the Prince is paramount. His ideal was that Italy would reclaim its territories from the barbarians and become great once again. Taking back all of Italy form foreign powers is utopian enough for him. This is evident when he writes, “With what love he would be received in all those Provinces which have suffered from foreign inundation, with what thirst for vengeance, with what fixed fidelity, with what devotion, and what tears, no words of mine can declare.” Machiavelli concerns himself greatly with how to be a great leader so that lands would not be lost to the foreign invaders.
Marx sets forth steps for running society, but his goal is to reach a classless Utopia. In his article, “Marxism and Utopianism”, Peter Wagner describes the difference between Marx and other utopian philosophers, “Where Marx sets his work apart from the others, is his belief in not only the plausibility of his utopian state, but his confidence in its existence in the not-so-distant future.” The main component of Marx’s ideal society is that all land and modes of production will be state owned. His first step to Communism is, “Abolition of property in lad and application of all rents land to public purposes.” His reasoning is that property in the hands of a few gives them power over those that are not property owners, thus, creating conflict between the two.
Plato, Machiavelli, and Marx all have their individual beliefs about what Utopia should be. Plato wants a City where the citizens live for enlightenment, Machiavelli strives for the best way to maintain order, and Marx dreams of a classless society. Now that their ideas for Utopia have been established, how does their view of human nature determine the rulers of these societies?
Plato describes for unjust forms of government, which all correspond to certain aspects in human nature. Men that are driven by honor make up the government in a Military Dictatorship, and their main objective is obtaining honor through war. Men that believe they should rule because they were born into royalty or wealth from an Oligarchy and their main concern is to maintain their wealth and position. Governments in a Democracy are charged with controlling the citizens’ constant fight for individual freedoms. The worst form of government is Tyranny, which Plato believes in unlawful and that tyrants rule for selfish reasons only. Plato acknowledges that the military is necessary, but must devote themselves to the City. Plato believes the best rulers for his City are philosophers because they possess “true knowledge.” He explains, “When true philosophers — whether one or many — come to power in the city, they will scorn honors, counting them illiberal and worthless. Their first care will be to do what is right and accept the honors such care merits. They will reform, serve, and maintain the city, and justice will be its chief quality and most indispensable standard.” Philosophers are the only ones that can see the truth, and therefore, they are the only ones that can determine what is best for the City.
Machiavelli’s view of human nature was shaped by the brutal times in which he lived. He talks in terms of survival. Zarka points out, “For him it is only when the political dimension has been recognized as the order of conflict and the struggle for power and domination, that one can conceive conditions for creating a republican regime, based on good customs and laws, that can defend freedom.” The Prince’s number one concern should be principality. To maintain order through political power, the Prince should be feared but not cruel. The best ruler would be incorporate characteristics of animals with laws of man. Machiavelli contends, “A Prince should, therefore, understand how to use well both and man and beast.” Ultimately, the best ruler does not blame fortune or others; he takes responsibility for the fate of his princedoms.
Marx divides society into two classes, the Bourgeoisie and Proletarians. The Bourgeoisie are the owners of land and the rescues needed to produce goods, and Proletarians are the workers. According to Marx, it is in the nature of the Bourgeoisie to obtain profit at the expense of the laborer and their power lies in that exploitation. He summarizes, “Political power, properly so called, is merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another.” The aim of Communism is to convert land and resources into common property. Therefore, with removal of private property, the laborer can no longer be exploited. Marx contends that, “Communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the products of society; all that it does is to deprive him of the power to subjugate the labors of others by means of such appropriation.” In Marx’s Utopia, the government would be the citizens, and goods would be distributed based on need rather that greed. Communism gives power to the workers.
Plato, Machiavelli, and Marx all have varying opinions on what that ideal society would be. In addition, their philosophies regarding who should hold political power, in order to maintain society, are vastly different. How and by whom their Utopia would be controlled is based on their perception of human nature. Plato and Marx would agree that a just society would reject materialism; however, Marx would find Plato’s use of slavery abhorrent. Machiavelli does not discern between Military, Oligarchy, Democracy, or Tyranny, his only concern is how to keep order. Though these three philosophers have dissimilar notions of who should govern, they all agree that the survival of the society is the most important thing. Unfortunately, much like these three philosophers, humankind cannot agree on what Utopia looks like, or how we get there.
